Age of Revolution 

“our problem is not to trace the emergence of the world market, have a sufficiently active class a private entrepreneurs, or even (in England) of a state dedicated to the proposition that the maximization of private profit was the foundation of government policy.”

For the new bourgeoisie and wealthy classes, those involved in trade and transport – the world was becoming smaller. For everyone else, who lives in the places in between, in the country, the world is incredibly vast. Most of them spent their entire lives within a small section of countryside, never leave Except for days or weeks of travel to get to A major port

Most were illiterate. The mail which was able to move across Europe within 36 hours, was on read by most of those who handled it or the regions a pass-through along the way

The average height was 5‘2“. People who lived in towns were approximately 3 cm taller, perhaps due to reliable and increased food supply.

The provincial town defend itself and it’s economy. It became a channel of revenue from the peasantry distributed to local no holes, and then up to country governments. The land rent was the sole source of income – adopted by the first systematic school of continental economist, the French  Physiocrats.

The slave plantation zone was centered in the Caribbean islands in the northern coast of South America in the southern part of the USA. During this period sugar declined and Cottonrose as the primary crap and export.

Serfdom throughout Europe made The majority of presents under free, de facto.

At the beginning of the 19th century many service were sold and traded as a property separate from the land. In Poland and Russia advertisements read like slave trade advertisements in the southern parts of the United States.

The “Freedom” of peasants towards the end of the middle ages was what is swapped for a margin of dues paid to the landlord, the church, the prince of nobility, duties on force labor. All of these taxes and costs were exempt from the HIgher social strata who simply collected and administered the system.

Following reformations in landownership in England during 1768-1830, a new system led by agricultural entrepreneurs and merged. Crops for export focused on time workers to Capital is production of regimented plots of land. 

“The world of agriculture was sluggish, except for its capitalist sector.”

Did the introduction of potatoes as a stable export crap for Ireland later cause the potato famine? Loss of agricultural diversity under Capitalist export production?

Sugar was imported from the American colonies and Caribbean plantations. The Napoleonic wars realized beats for sugar as a local substitute. Global trade increase the capital us to control the routes and trading companies. The nobility and wealth of the old system faded, the Lords and entitlement begin to fade as capitalism replaced feudal relations. Birthright was used to gain preference and power in the new system.

In Western Europe the merchant remain the chief controller and benefactor of new trade. Eastern Europe it was still the feudal Lord. 

Merchants were in control, and different than the “industrialists “who emerged as petty operators beside him.

Craftsman were converted into subcontractors or employers as a decentralized form of production replaced the old Guilds.

The Enlightenment was rooted in the goals of economic and scientific rationality to progress production and trade. The progress of human knowledge, rationality, wealth, civilization, and control over nature.

“In theory it’s object was to set all human beings free. “ Ancien Regimes would be swept away along with the church . The social order which would emerge would be a bourgeois and capitalist one.

Benjamin Franklin as the ideal of the self-made man. Freemason lodges were free of the old class distinctions and focus solely on enlightened Economic Progress.  

The success of British S power lead monarchs and their advisers across Europe to rollout plan societies concerned with the practical advantage of “adopting the most up-to-date methods of multiplying their revenue wealth and power.“ A survival and maintenance strategy to adapt into a new value system and catalyst structure and remain at the top. Yet entrenched interest and the vested power of the old feudal system lead these princes and nobility declarations to never be realized. It was not until the French revolution, and the revolution of 1848 that peasants and lower classes forced the remaining vestiges of futile power hand oppression out of major economies.

* similar to promises by existing capitalists to become more socially responsible for embrace a “reformed Neocapitalism “that benefits everyone. The talk is there but the practices and exploitation increase and do not change until reformation is forced from those Disenfranchised.

Because Britain had created an adaptive state in capitalism, and moved away from the old absolute monarch power in many ways, the loss of the American colonies was not a fatal blow to its empire. This is why expansion and dominance is in India under trade and with as much moving under their companies as possible. France, on the other hand, was depending on absolute monarchy and though they succeeded against Britain By supporting the American revolution, the cost of winning this war crippled the state and led to the uprising and turmoil of the eventual French revolution

The four centuries of European colonialization open until the industrial revolution, which Changed European systems of motivation. till that time, fuedal systems left little incentive to expand out beyond regional wars and intraEuropean conflict 

The Industrial Revolution 

The Cash Nexus (a Thomas Carlyle phrase) reduced human measure of value to “gold and paper”

Statistical indices show the “take off “occurred in the 1780s.

Industrious learned that with enough money they became beholders holders of governing power.

After the Anglo French conflicts of the 18th century were resolved in 1815, all rivals or eliminated from the non-European world.

Spain and Portugal withDrew from Latin America.

 Latin America became entirely dependent on Britain and British imports and it’s economy. 

Industrial revolution meant creating a mechanized “factory system “which in turn produces in such a vast quantities and at such rapidly diminishing cost as to be no longer dependent on existing demand, but to create its own market.

Produce cheap enough, and a mass market will arise. Creates a competition to produce at the lowest cost possible, lowest wage possible, secure monopoly and maintain the disparity between cost and increase selling price, the profit margin.

– gaining enough cheap and simple innovations along with a world market to be monopolize by single producing nation.

“Britain possessed and Industry admirably suited to pioneering industrial revolution under capitalist conditions… catalyze by The Cotton Industry and Colonial expansion”

Colonial trade created The Cotton Industry, slavery marched in lockstep. Lancashire Mills in England extended and maintained rocketing demands. The southern plantations of the United States supplied the bulk of their raw cotton to these mills.

– India  was Deindustrialized in the first half of the 19th century. Cotton production shifted to Lancashire Mills and the Indian market turn from supply to demand. 11,000,000 in 1820 to 145,000,000 yards in 1840 of cotton was consumed. The East India Company and Indian producers were put out of business, or shifted to other commodities.

– The west had finally found a way to sell more to the east than it purchased. The opium trade began in 1815-1842 and it was exported and mass from India to the rest of the east, the reluctant Chinese market included.

– Robert Owen was an assistant who borrowed 100 pounds in Manchester. By 1809 he bought at his partners in the new Leonard Mills for 84,000 pounds in cash. This is what he must have used to find the utopian socialist community in Scotland. A rich idealist who created a secluded Commune. He directly benefited from the unbridled power of white men in the colonies to use slavery and expansion into cultivated land as low-cost means of supplying rock on to the industry and mechanization he capitalized on.

– The domestic system Hand spinners and then weavers were used as distributed bulk labor, converting from their former status as independent craftsman to contracted bulk labor, filling a gap until mechanization could completely erase their trade. Ireland and central Europe were used primarily.

  

The Cotton Industry revolutionize the British economy. It made it 50% of all exports including agriculture.

– The cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney and 1793, drastically reduce the cost of raw material, rock cotton from the southern states. This exploded slavery as a major input to rock commodity production – near-free labor. The British textile industry solidified slavery in the United States

 The single industry created antagonisms. The petty bourgeoisie were the inadaptable businessman and entrepreneurs left up by the financiers who controlled the industry.

This United the petty bourgeoisie with the proletariat into mass movements of radicalism democracy or republicanism, lest they topple into the “unpropertied abyss” 

– The American Jacksonian Democrats in America were the most formidable between 1815 and 1848

After the initial boost in profit margin following the Cottongin, margins became slim and the cost of labor was seen as only compressible up to the point of starvation and the cost of living. The corn laws protected landlords and British farming for the countryside where workers resided

– Mechanization became the focus to increase production and sales, “that’s making up by the mass of small profits per unit for the fall in the margins”

– Technological innovation could only go so far, and the speed up of production only happened in the last half of the 19th century

* Distributed labor, like ridesharing drivers in Uber and lift, are used as the centralize mass labor to fill a gap until automation – like self driving cars – completely races the need for their occupation. Has happened in the industrial revolution, the techno super industrial revolution six to follow the same methods and pathways to satisfy old market requirements of absolute lowest cost.

three flaws threatened the fundamental motive force: profit.

1. The trade cycle of boom and slump

2. The tendency of the rate of profit to decline

3. The shortage of profitable investment opportunities

The railway was the child of the mine. Coal mining lead directly to the expansion of steam engine railways across England and France the United States other parts of Europe and even Russia. The British coal industry made up 90% of total

– Although railway investments were rarely profitable, the huge expansion in real Waze led to the rise of the British stealing the street, using Cole to smelt.

– There was so much money from industrial capitalist economy in the upper classes, it exceeded the available pool of investments and spending, so exploratory spending like railways was easy to justify

The disruption of the communal peasant farming societies and villages through the enclosure acts in Britain, forced nearly 1.5 million people into industrial times to feed the industrial catalyst labor supply. France was unable to disrupt the system and did not pass regulations to do so, so their industrial growth suffered and fell behind Britain in the same era

British Mills and Industry used Irish immigrants, as they did not have access to direct slave labor as in the Americas.

To properly control and ensure a steady rate of work and labor, industrialist had to manipulate the incentive structure for new workers used to the seasonal Ups and downs of labor and agriculture and farming.

– They would often work only until they had a living wage for the week and then stop. This required reducing the wage rate to a minimum subsistence level so that workers will be required to Fillmore hours and have a continuous endless work week to ensure survival.

– Women and children composed 3/4 of the workforce at this time, as they were seen as easier to control and required less supervision and pay

– As an added layer of control and manipulation, skilled employees were directed to subcontract some of their work to less skilled family or friends as their own employees. They created contractors and subcontractors within factories to offload the managerial and labor discipline problem to the workers them selves. This extended beyond factor work into regulation of lives among workers

Britain became “the workshop of the world” turning out and consuming massive amounts of cotton yard, pig iron, another industrial commodities and products.

All government became engineered to further industrial capitalism rather than rule of law.

 “The gods and kings of the past were powerless before the businessman and steam engines of the present.“

The French Revolution 

“Soon the enlightened nations will put on trial those who have hitherto rolled over them. The king shall flee into the deserts, into the company of the wild beasts and they resemble; and nature shall resume her rights.” – Saint-Just, Sur la Constitution de la France, 1793

From the French revolution emerged codes of law, models of scientific and technical organization, the metric system – used by most countries afterwards.

British Jacobins and American revolutionary’s who were forced out of their countries for their extreme views, were seen as moderates in France when they immigrated at this time. 

Tom Paine was an extremist, became a moderate among the Girondins in Paris

The French revolution as opposed to though non-influence of the American Revolution and the rest of the world, spurred the liberation of Latin America after 1808, the first Hindu reform movement and start of modern Indian nationalism.

Causes

1. The nobles (aristocracy) under absolute monarchy lost political independence and responsibility end it cut down their old Representative institutions.

2. With following incomes and increasing expenses to maintain noble status and their power, inflation was also reducing the value of fixed revenue such as rents. Feudists as a profession emerged as a movement to squeeze out as much old fuel right of income from the peasants, I made up 80% of the population and owned 30 to 40% of the land, unlike in Britain where their land was stripped away under the enclosure racks – they owned land and it’s production value, but we’re trapped in the system of reducing returns, income, and famine. This directly led to the first communist revolution 1796 led by Gracchus Babeuf

3. The failed reformations of 1774 to 1776 to create an  “enlightened aristocracy“ frustrated the bourgeoisie and middle classes, who needed and Efficient government system to organize and manage their capitalist productions. They were also competing with the Nobles for power position. They look to the presence of the people for Revolution and stead of the aristocracy to reform the system and allow production and development

4. When the French monarch involve the country in the American revolution, the cost of the war bankrupted the nation and the debt from the war crippled the economy. This pushed the rising intentions against the monarch overboard

5. The Revolution first began as an aristocratic attempt to recapture the state after the monarch called an ‘ Assembly of notables‘ and the the old, feudal “ States General“ to convene in 1787. The aristocracy “underestimated the ‘third estate’ and “and the profound economic and social crisis into which it through its political demands.”

6. In the reformed “States-General of the Commons” – The 3rd Estate was comprised of 610 man elected to represent the peasants in labor and poor. Third estate saw the ability of the first two are states, the nobility and clergy, could outvote the third on any situation. The third estate broke away informed the national assembly, claiming the duty of rewriting the constitution entirely. The monarchy was refused participation.

7. The poor harvest and subsequent famine of 1788 and 1789 made riotous both the country poor (farming expenses and returns inverted, no recourse) and the urban pour (food prices doubled) into the third estate and national assembly is Revolution.

The liberal bourgeoisie of 1789 was 

“not a Democrat but a believer in constitutionalism, secular state was civil liberties and guarantees for private enterprise, and government by taxpayers and property owners.”

– The higher theoretical ideals of the revolutionary Constitution were not universally intended to be put to practice. The bourgeoisie intended to engineer the state for the maintenance of private property rights and efficiency production. There were some who did advocate for for revolutionary principles though.

“In times of Revolution nothing is more powerful than the fall of symbols” – the storming of the Bastille represented the fall of despotism all across the world. It’s spread the revolution throughout the French countryside and provincial towns.

The Declaration of the rights of man and citizen became the formal manifesto. Feudalism was not finally abolished until 1793, but feudal privileges were suspended immediately.

The peasant revolution was vast and immovable. “The peasantry never provides a political alternative to anyone”

The Sansullotists were a collection of small business owners, artisans, all poor and in between the peasants and the bourgeoisie. They organize the main thrust of the riots and barricade constructions in the cities. They hope for a return to the golden past where government and banks did not interfere. They were guided by the Jacobins in Britain. They were overwhelmed by the larger peasant revolutionary motives and push for Revolution advancement of politics and economics, but their ideology had lingering effects in villages through the 20th century  in France.

The emancipation of the Jews was a pioneer movement of the French revolution.

From 1789 to 1791, the more moderate bourgeoisie declared through the constituent assembly: enclosure of common lands in the encouragement of rule entrepreneurs; for the working class, the banning of trade unions; for the small craft the abolition of Guild‘s and corporations. The only satisfaction to the common people came from the secularization and sale of churchlands

The aristocracy, The king, and the other nobility and clergy had immigrated to Westerman cities. They conspired with other nobles and divinely appointed rulers in Europe to restore Louis XVI to power.

With a shaky economy and increasing food prices, the decision was made to go to war against the external re-conquest of nobility attempting to recapture France and put Louis back in power. The nation went into “total war“ and mobilize the entire countries economy and population. During the “Terror“ of 1793-94, a coup of the Sansullotists to form a revolutionary war government. the Jacobin republic was born.

– 17,000 official executions in 14 months were performed during the terror

– Armies of German princes invaded from the north and east, the British attack from the south and west. At the end of 14 months, the invaders were expelled and French armies occupied Belgium. The currency stabilized

– The Jacobin abolished slavery in the French colonies, to encourage the Negroes of sand a mango to fight for the Republic against the English

– The transformation of agriculture and small enterprise was halted by securing a traditional “citadel of small and middle peasant proprietors, small Crossman and shopkeepers, and economic retrogression. Capitalism and urbanization, the expansion of the whole market as it happened in Britain were all halted, as well as the advance of proletarian Revolution.

The failure of Napoleonic France to recapture Haiti was a main driver for selling the entire French steak in the New World to the US in the Louisiana purchase of 1803. Jacobinism caused the USA to expand into its full territory.

All the subsequent attempts at Regimes and types of rules were based on the original liberal program of 1789 to 7091, to maintain a bourgeois society while avoiding the double danger of the Jacobin the democratic republic and the old monarch.

Napoleon Bonaparte became the ruler of France as a de facto – the revolutionary army had no dependence on any support or resources from the revolutionary government. The army was the only force generating unified cause and activity.

The revolutionary French army was dependent on winning battles quickly and looting the rich countries of Belgium Germany and Italy. When it reached the scares lands of Poland and Russia, it crumbled. The entire army was based on constant and rapid conquest – unsustainable.

– He rose to the ranks of the army to become a general in Year II and supported the Jacobin dictatorship, survive the fall of Robespierre, and what is thrust into power after his successful defense during the invasions of 1799

– Bonaparte made the peasantry richer, Nearly everyone in France was better off by 1815., The wage labor force was still minimal, and his legacy would continue in the institutions of French law, and the Jacobin Revolution he destroyed would come to form the greater revolutions of the 19th century

War

Jacobinism

– The British Jacobins were unable to join the French due to the inherited hostility – there’s a store called precedents for an English versus French rivalry dating back to and through mid evil times. The Scottish Jacobins, on the other hand, or United with the French historically.

– With no united front or mass support among the middle and upper classes and the rest of Europe, only if you intellectuals and tiny student conspiracies existed.

– The “United Irishmen”  held church services for the godless French, and welcomed in invasion because they hated the English.

– Anywhere for an impression threatened the country, as in Poland, the French revolution and Jacobinism was popular and influenced national reform language – though often nobility and gentry held Reformation power and the effect was kept superficial 

The French revolutionary army was made of French civilians, rapidly trained by older soldiers. In contrast to the old armies, the Orthodox ways of professional  ordering in the other countries,The French revolutionary army was made of French civilians, rapidly trained by older soldiers. In contrast to the old armies, the Orthodox ways of professional soldiering in the other countries, it had to use, energy, courage and unrivaled success on land. In the seas where naval officers and experience mattered, the French were defeated often by the British.

Political influence of the revolution lead many civilians and other countries to support the French as they invaded. From 1790 for her to 1814, French and Vance and military victory was consistent and rapid

The anti-French powers or a mix in the politics of Europe. Russia was intermittently anti-French, entering the war between 1795 and 1800, 1805, and 1812. Prussia as well.

– The political implications for each country and ruler or Max. Different states in Italy, Germany, and other parts of Europe chose side strategically – even if the revolution was against their role as monarchs or aristocrats, the re-organization of European territory was common in the ongoing wars of the content. They expected this conflict and viewed The French advance as another redistribution that they could gain favor and benefit from 

  

The British did not want to possess the European continent. Their interest live in trading dominance on the seas. They viewed Colonial territory and foreign dominance as priorities. The French could have a climate, the British wanted to rule the seas, the new trade, capitalism, and industrialization of economy.

France conquered and “brought peace” to much of the European continent except for Scandinavia. It unified and standardized the European continent. As war marches through old feudal systems, it unified countries in regions, deleting old principalities like independent city state republics and “ free imperial night Estates” – and the confusing, contradictory, and undefined, overlapping boundaries between the scattering of inherited land and power. Smaller states were swallowed up by greedy neighbors and old boundaries dissolved.

– Feudalism was formally abolished

– The institutions of the French revolution were applied in all of the Concord lands, in many parts as the Civil Code of Napoleon

– Both the collaborators in these lands (in Spain, the afrancesados) and the anti-French movements created reforms.  Either way, the revolutionary army was a call for change, and the new organization remained after 1814

By 1815, a holy different attitude towards Revolution prevailed and dominated a new policy of European powers. Previously they had viewed each revolution and insurgency relative to their own political power in position. Now they had seen a revolution could spread across the entire continent, and creating armies could “blow away the political systems of a continent”

– The diversion of resources in European economies caused massive devaluation of printed paper currency‘s. Except for the British, face value is dropped more than 80%, including in France with over 99% devaluation until a bankruptcy reset in 1797.

– Losses during the war or not high compared to other war time periods, and the 30 years war of the previous century. Famine and pestilence had claimed four more lives and would go on to Claymore later in the century. Many parts of Europe were relatively unaffected by more time. Troops with March through, take residence, and MoveOn. Battlefields were more formally defined and respected.

As conscripted man return to the workforce, inflation had decreased wages and buying power, and prices dropped back from their war time highs, leaving less margin for labor costs under pre-industrial capitalism.

The British “invested “3 to 4 times as much is the French, but emerged from the war in 1815 as the workshop of the world, I had of all other states and development then she had been in 1789

Peace

A general piece was declared in Europe by the old regimes from 1815 until 1848, for fear of provoking another revolution. Prince Metro Nick was the Prime Minister of Austria and an enemy of all change. 

– France was granted admission into the European concert again in 1818, it’s boundaries were actually left a shade better thanThey had been in 1789. care was taken tonight provoke another round of Jacobinism. 

– Louis the 18th granted the Constitution though it was concealed as a “freely conceited “charter under an absolute monarch

Britain focused on foreign colonial expansion in India and other trading areas.

Russia became the and Gemini over most of Europe. Poland was granted a degree of autonomy but the majority was owned by Russia, and the rest split between pressure and Austria.

 “Russia was content exercise a remote, but far from ineffectual, and Germany overall absolute principalities east of France, her main interest being that revolution should be avoided. Czar Alexander sponsored a holy alliance for this purpose which Austria and Prussia joined but Britain did not. They were to act as stabilizers, and become “a permanent safeguard against any attempts to unsettled the peace.”

The Eastern Question And it’s crises.

The kingdom of Turkey was full of internal conflicts, and owned by Muhamed Ali of Egypt as a sovereign for all real purposes. Russia and Britain checked each other for any conflict to on the territory, and other than the Crimean war in the 1850s, There was no major conflict until World War I. The Serbs and the Slavs undermined the “ramshackle international empire that was turkey “

The population of France and the ratio of French men to English man has shifted. The French population and economic evolution stalled out and fell behind British American and soon German progress. This was the old power and threat of French jacobinism. Without a population advantage ready to mobilize for another revolutionary army, it would take an international revolutionary movement. 

Any territorial expansion by France was limited by fear of another revolutionary movement, as happened in 1830 and again in 1848.

Britain continue to expand worldwide treating interest – southern tip of Africa, Ceylon, Singapore, in Hong Kong.

Quote a world line open to British trade and safeguarded by the British Navy from unwelcome intrusion was more cheaply exploited without the administrative cost of occupation.“ This was true for all areas except India, which was seen as unable to take care of itself. 

China opened up after the opium war of 1839 to 1842. 

Between 1848 in 1849 the size of the British Indian empire increased by 2/3 of the subcontinent – a result of a series of wars against the Nepalese,  Rajputs, afghans, Sikhs, Mahrattas, Burmans.

 The US conquered most of its Western territory, it’s only resistance being the Mexicans. The French can find their expansionism to Algeria, which they acquired from 1830-1847.

The abolition of the international slave trade happened first with the British, who saw the majority of the world economy shifting from the sale of men and sugar to that of cotton goods. I will not be abolished elsewhere until the revolutions of 1848.

Revolution 

The revolutionary wave of 1830 was much more serious than the smaller wave of 1820

“It marks the definitive defeat of aristocratic by bourgeois power in Western Europe. The ruling class of the next 50 years was to be the grand bourgeoisie of bankers, big industrialist, and sometimes top civil servants, excepted by and aristocracy which effaced itself or agreed to promote primarily bourgeois policies”

– universal suffrage was many decades away, harassment came from lesser businessman, the petty bourgeoisie, and early labor movements

– A pompous, show off Jacksonian democracy in the US seemed to refuse the oligarchy of Western Europe by allowing frontiersman, small farmers, and the urban port to vote.  

The 1848 revolutions carried the consciousness of 1789 into “the spring time with peoples of an entire continent. Revolution in 1848 broke out in France, the whole of Italy, the German states, most of the Habsburg empire, and Switzerland. It also affected Spain, Denmark, and Romania, with sporadic outbreaks in Ireland Greece and Britain.

Babeuf’s Conspiracy of the Equals in year II of the French Revolution marked the start of the modern communist tradition

The build up from 1815 to 1848 was a direct result of the re-imposition of the old political order on a continent demanding entirely new Politics and conditions. Returning to the “old way of life“ after a taste of a new order made revolution inevitable.

Three classes emerged as the main trends of Post 1815 opposition:

1. Moderate liberal – upper middle class is and liberal aristocracy

2. The radical democratic – the lower middle class, part of the new manufacturers, the intellectuals, and the discontented Gentry

3. The socialist – the laboring poor, the new industrial working classes

The absolute monarch governments viewed all three movements as equally subversive of stability in good order. Prince Metternich deployed secret police in the 1830s, as the many other monarchs with police spies and agents who would infiltrate the ranks of these movements and often downplay the significance of the revolutionary sentiment against the reestablished order.

* Middle class and bourgeois reformers dominated the rhetoric, much as middle and upper class liberals do in modern American politics. 

In Britain, movements that produced reformation acts and concessions were led by bourgeois and manufacturers, and the “popular classes “made up a tiny proportion of the organized movements.  

The six points of the People’s charter:

1.  manhood suffrage,

2.  to vote by ballot 

3. Equal electoral district‘s

4. Payment of members of parliament

5. Annual parliaments

6. Abolition of property qualification for candidates

In the European continent until 1830, revolutionaries regarding themselves as fighting against a single enemy – the union of absolute is princes under the leadership of the Russians Tsar.

–  The best known group was the Carbonari. 

– The Decemberists made the first insurrection of modern Russian history in 1825

After 1830 the social revolutionaries and radical split from the moderates and bourgeoisie. In Britain, the overnight general union of 1834 to 1835 and the chartists faced hostility from both the supporters and opposers of the reform max – since they were seen as seeking reformation or escape from the entire system.

A romantic movement emerged. Young Europe was a Decentralized romantic movement  led by artist ideals, composed of young Germany, young Italy, young Poland, etc. The self dramatize or Joseph Mazzini became the apostle of the anti-Carbonarist reaction (Carbonarist movement was seen as international, originated from France, neo-Jacobin)

Expansion into frontiers and new lands in the US but there was no unified effort in the United States for a revolution by the urban pour. The working men’s party of 1828 to 1829 was not a serious revolutionary organization under Jacksonian democracy it. The disenfranchisement of Indians and slaves and small farmers and they were even pour in Latin America also prevented a unified revolution. It was only in Europe where the threat of urban poor revolutionaries was real and pressing.

Blanquism

The object was the seizure of political power, followed by the “dictatorship of the proletariat”. Elitist leaders in this movement plan there seizures of power in the void, which led to failure, as in the 1839 attempt at uprising 

Utopian socialism was uninterested in political agitation, as The movement centered around creating a parallel new economy as with Robert Owen in Scotland and other parts of Britain, though these groups became nuclei of working class leader ship and mobilization for the 1848 revolution. Leaders included Saint Simon, Fourier, Cabet. 

Utopian socialists intended on creating a parallel system instead of fighting the current one. But their efforts were dismantled by the current system with reforms and government, state sponsored acts of destruction and prohibition by capitalist and petty bourgeois leaders.

States of development prevented a unified effort across economies throughout Europe by social revolutionaries. In many of the agrarian societies of turkey, Russia, parts of Germany, etc. the old rival reason divisions of late feudalism, The politics and divisions between Monarch and Gentry, also divided the peasantry who were natural allies for the radicals. Because of these allegiances, the loyalty and unification of these peasants was uncertain and often they did not participate in the 1848 revolutions

The Chartists in England were large but poorly organized.

Or moderate groups were swept into the 1848 revolutions, led by new proletarian and working class radicals. 

Blanquists, the League of the Just, and the Communist league of Marx and Engels.

 Still, the general sentiment was that a political intermediary step was needed to reform and overthrow the system, which required bourgeois government before Socialism. Only the “grand bourgeoisie “of a few countries were officially in the Government Camp.

Divisions among the general left-wing movement would not emergent till after the 1848 revolutions, when the divide between bourgeoisie and proletariat became recognized. From 1830-1848 more left wing the politician, the more likely they were to favor Jacobin principles of centralization and a strong executive versus the Girondin and principles of federalism, decentralization, and the division of powers.

The fraternal Democrats believed national prejudices would disappear in the world of fraternity. In 1847 there was a democratic Association for the unification of all countries. The exile of revolutionaries and many European countries reinforce the internationalism movement. Absolutism bonded it’s common enemies together. 

Harro Harring as a member of young Germany, young Italy, and the more Shadoway young Scandinavia, attempted a projected united states of Latin America and a similar movement from New York in the US, before returning for the 1848 revolution.

Education became the stimulus and foundation for much of the revolution after 1830. And most European countries in Russia the number of university students doubled or triple from 1800 to 1848. The number of books tripled, those published each year and were distributed to a newly literate and politically conscious common people. Still, the Spanish and Portuguese had barely 8000 children in any school. Secondary schools were even more selective, and university populations were growing but still minimal compared to large uneducated masses. The literacy in Britain France and Belgium was 40 to 50% of the population of 1840s.

At the same time literacy was improving, national literature was emerging. It was still religion that defined nationalism though.

The middle class and Gentry lead the nationalist movement, and peasants were suspicious to join the cause.

Only Ireland had a movement led by the peasant and lower classes. The Irish peel movement under Daniel O’Connell the first charismatic popular leader mark the awakening of political consciousness in the masses. O’Connells Catholic Association One favor as a religious and nationalist movement in the 1829 struggle for Catholic emancipation. It was called “the liberator” – leading The peasants of a pauperized Island. later Irish nationalist would criticize him for not raising all of Ireland against the British, as the other power to do. The same criticism was waste against Gandhi for not raising India against the British.

Latin American revolutions were led by small groups of patricians soldiers and left out the mass of the Catholic poor white population, the Indians were in different or hostile. Only in Mexico was independence won by a popular agrarian i.e. Indian movement marching under the banner of the virgin Guadalupe. Colombian Venezuelan Ecuadorian Etc. lacked anything but a fragile minor national consciousness.

The dual revolution. Both nationalist movements and the international 1848 revolutions had shared goals and disparate ones. Some nationalist movement viewed the progressive international revolution as against their religion, which often motivated nationalism and Eastern Europe and parts of the Balkans, Serbia Croatia. Egypt, led by a westernized Soldier leader Muhammad Ali was supported by European left wingers and 1820s and 1830s as an enlightened autocrat. Egypt, along with Ireland, would be the first modern colonial nationalist movement.

Land

Three kinds of changes to convert agrarian systems into Capitalist production:

1. Land becomes a commodity, possessed by private owners and trade on the market

2. Land ownership by enlightened self interest and profit oriented men

3. Transform rural populations into Mobile wage workers for the non-agricultural sector of the economy

The American conversion was led by intensive mechanization and government land policy – Hussey and McCormick invented mechanical repairs which complemented commercial minded farmers and land speculating entrepreneurs who sees land or bought it from the government at nominal prices.

North America did not have the fuedal system debt to overcome. Individualist farming have free access to virtually unlimited Freeland. To deprive American Indians of their land by any means was considered as moral as it was profitable, since their way of living was considered Anti-civilization.

Global global conversion meant seizing vast blocks of collectively owned land and bringing them to market for rational exploitation. To tear a peasant class from their lands where they had “vegetated “for much of human history, create a mobile population of surplus labor, which couldn’t be exploited to compete amongst themselves for and within the migration between towns in factories where their muscles were needed. The loss of Land broke the other barns to history and any right of leisure.

The abolishment of feudalism was a critical movement throughout Europe to achieve this land ownership transition. In Britain, the enclosure acts and the poor law divided common fields into privately owned plots and forced rural farmers and peasants into factories.

Because France abolished feudalism through the revolution, land ownership by peasants and good conditions in rural areas slowed French industrial development due to a small flow surplus labor from the village into towns. Conquered lands of the revolutionary army – Scandinavia, parts of Germany- also adopted some form of peasant land ownership. In Italy, Italian unity was led through a “rural bourgeois”

In much of southern Europe, middle class purchasers simply took the place of former nobles or clerical landlords. They did away with traditions and customs and focused more on cash, rather than transforming the land into A machine of industrial production. Like taking over management of an existing, traditional business and optimizing it for cash flow and profit versus innovating and transforming the business model itself.

Liberal movements that destroyed the old social structure of King, church, and religious hierarchy or resisted bye peasants with counterrevolution‘s, notably and Catholic countries. Spain and Italy.  They rose for the “idea of just King and the church” it would take hybrid leaders to bridge that gap like durable D, who lead peasants into proclaiming revolution while still revolting in the name of the church, and Christ, marxism and book unionism would later divide out the influence of the church and religious structures from revolutionary philosophy.

Forcing Liberal Bourgeois Doctrine

The French colony of Algeria was forced to close it’s traditional religious schools under liberal doctrine. Schoolmasters fled to rule areas to organize revolt.

In British India, the complex and collective land ownership structure was seen as nonsensical and ridiculous. The British and posed Riotwari for half of India – a greedy system that tried to assess every peasant as their own, Landed proprietor to be taxed. The Village community was entirely bypassed as Liberal legal structure doctrine dictated the “Boone of private property” be conferred upon the Indian peasantry. North India had to be returned to a modified seminary system where only the large land owners or estate class were assessed.

The Indian revenue theory was based on the doctrine of rent. Example the land revenue of Bombay more than doubled within four years of a conquest of 1817 to 1818. The utilitarian James Mill viewed revenue from landed property as a pure surplus which had nothing to do with value. A 50% taxation of revenue from a peasant proprietor farmer class was assessed after land was nationalized and distributed to them as tenants. This led to widespread impoverishment and the result of 1857, which caused taxation to be reduce below extortion rates.

The British lead and forced a deindustrialization in Ireland and India. In India, the village industry based manufacturing system – a supplement to rural incomes through local domestic trade and agriculture- was destroyed as the British forced agricultural production and export of Cotton – the people became dependent on a single annual harvest, undiversified.

The population of Ireland grew when the potato took over most acreage. Landlords demanded a maximum number of rent pain tenants and the land plots were subdivided into tiny holdings of subsistence farmers. The March continued until the great Irish famine of 1847, or an estimated 1 million people died of hunger and another million emigrated away . There were many months we’re not a single child was born.

In Latin America, the Spanish never disturbed the System of collective ownership of land. Liberal land reform Was in effective until after 1850. the Hacienda the dominant unit of land ownership for most of the republic‘s.

Industrialization

Other than Britain, most of Europe and the rest of the world had mixed industrial development. Only a few hundred miles of railways, steam power transport and other industrial engineering was seen in slower economies. Except for the United States, which multiplied it’s Mailcoach roads more than eight times. 

The USA opened crucial waterways, that Erie, the Chesapeake, the Ohio. Steamships linked Britain and France in 1840, there were 370,000 tons of steam shipping compared to 9 million of sail. The Americans outdid the rest of the world, even rival in the British for the largest merchant fleet. The cotton gin and the assembly line production and conveyor belt were major engineering advances.

– In the US, the north represented farming and industrial development. They diversified and invented, importing capital, labor, and skills from Europe including Britain, as an independent economy.

– The southern states were an economic colony of Britain. Fully dependent on the booming factories of Lancashire and supplying of raw cotton

– As the USA expand westward, the north and the south competed for territories. The south seeking to institute slave plantations and a dependent economy something like a feudal system. The north to expand mechanized agriculture and mass slaughterhouses. Until the transcontinental railroad, the south control of the Mississippi Delta gave it and economic port advantage and resource in negotiating territories.

– The Civil War represented unification of America by and under Northern capitalism.  It was a war between two economic systems, and types of Capitalists.  Civil War was neither fought for states rights nor the abolition of slavery. It was a war of capital is philosophy and strategy.

– After the Civil War, the American economy proceeded under this model of industrial development. The major growth of the American economy occurred after 1860.

The population of Britain, pressure, and Norway and Denmark Sweden Holland and large parts of Italy doubled between 1750 and 1850. The USA saw a 6x increase in population. Population grew as a consequence instead of a cause of economic revolution.

The world became much younger – full of young labor and more consumers, all contributing to the industrial labor supply and consumption cycle.

International trade triple between 1780 and 1840. And then doubled again before 1850. 5 million Europeans left their native countries, almost 4/5 for the United States. Famine and food shortages were controlled bye improvements in transport, deficiency of government administration. Where in London and Paris were the only cities in the 18th century with more than half 1 million people, smaller cities began to swell in population. The creation of the proletariat and breakneck urbanization.

The German guild system was maintained well through the 1830s and 1940s. The slower type of production and the play cool protections of “requiring craftsman to join gills quote was entered as pressure from entrepreneurs and industrial Caplis broke apart ties between the political and old fuel systems of production. 

Outside of Britain, most of the railways and minds were constructed by governments or approved businessman. In England alone, the individual and private entrepreneur under took most of the development in the industrial enterprise.

Investment banking gave wealthy bankers a dominating position in control in the development of industry.

France was an exception due to the legacy of the French revolution. Outside of Paris, some cities actually contracted in population. They had an advantage and innovation and potential, but capital was invested in foreign projects. Industrial power did not grow. French entrepreneurs focused on domestic luxury goods and not lower quality for mass consumption. The free and landless laborers trickled into cities.

Britain industrial development was powered by coal- the fuel Of all industry and manufacturing. Southern Europe and the underdeveloped industrial world I was told “the sun is your coal”

 Britain was intent on maintaining its status as the workshop at the world, power by coal and forcing other economies into agricultural and mineral/mining production, trading their raw resource and commodity for manufactured goods from England.

outside of Western Europe, majority of the world became dependent on the west. For landowners, the arrangement for the export of raw crops and resources in exchange for manufactured goods to produce them was favorable, supported, and maintained in political and social structures. As with the American south, plantation and estate owners and trench their power to maintain their position as beneficiaries of a larger dependent relationship on the industrialized west.

A clear division between the advanced, and the underdeveloped countries emerged. It’s not until the 1930s that the Russians would develop a means of leaping this chasm.

Bourgeois Society

The French revolution destroyed aristocratic Society, but inherited and perpetuated much of its culture and values. The self-made man became the new master, the proletariat his servants, the aristocracy an old romantic ideal of lifestyle to achieve to profiteering. 

Common newspapers proliferated throughout the first half of the 19th century, driven bye and expanding potential for advertising revenue. This is where journalism first emerged as a concept. Defined wholly by its ability to attract advertisers and maintain readership.

The protestant ethic was used as justification buy a new class of powerful capitalists. It was divine equity that servants should serve their new industrial capitalist masters, and that the profit derived was do only to the master capitalist. Steam was the new name of God, and spoke in the voice of my office, color, and anyone who employed machinery.

James Mill viewed the new bourgeoisie as the virtuous class of society charged with forming intellectual thought for government, with the proletariat following –  “Their minds directed”

In Britain, Manchester became the front of policy, culture, and innovation. London followed.

Intellectualism that did not support and converge with the larger industrialization and capitalist drive was dismissed. Even the scientific method, as proposed by Charles Babbage, was ignored. The great exhibition of 1851 displayed a slew of new industrial innovation.

On emergence of bourgeois utilitarianism:

Outside of the successful Bourgeois communities, the proletariat housing, streets, buildings, factories, – all tended to look the same as a sweeping utilitarianism sought to strip all culture and Nuance away in the pursuit of streamlined, efficient, symbolic division of the haves and the have not‘s. 

“the new bourgeoisie… Dispensing command, moral education, and assistance to missionary endeavor among the black human bride. It’s men personified money which proved the right to rule the world; it’s women deprive by their husbands money even have the satisfaction of actually doing household work, personify the virtue of their class: stupid, uneducated, impractical, theoretically on sexual, property list, and protected. They were the only luxury which the age of thrift and self-help aloud itself.” p. 225-226

Capitalist society  now offer four routes to gain power:

1. Business

2. Education – and the three goals of government service, politics, and the free professions

3. The arts

4. War

Pre-calculus society excepted certain rules. Capital society noted that with some initial resources, a man could, through greed and the art of moneymaking, I sent to a new status and role in society. To Manny, business and greet in the strange art of capitalism was a moral. Education was seen as a normal route, excepted in times before as a poor man’s road to the priesthood, clerical work, or an exceptional cases to be a doctor or a lawyer. These were noble profession‘s intent on serving others. Education required a much smaller shift in men’s habits.

The new education represented individuals competition, the axis of career open to talent, and the triumph of merit over birth

Bureaucracies expanded, intent on practical efficiency, education, and a meritocracy birth from non-aristocratic origins. Public expenditure per capita increased dramatically all across Europe Russia, and over 75% in the USA. Militaries grew or maintained their levels.

New level of taxation under a graduated income tax spread throughout liberal states. In 1840, government expenditure in Britain was four times as high as an autocratic Russia.

Civil servants in France, for example, such as clerks or allowed the “privilege of public service – the security which allowed them to starving and even rhythm all their lives.”

White collars gave them administrative power over the laboring poor, and the illusion of membership in the wealthy classes.

Other professions – such as lawyers, physicians, architects, writers, or prohibited due to small and exclusive educated bodies that admitted few students. Primary school teachers to distribute basic low levels of moral control and education became a popular profession but still obviously limited in its proportion to number of new laborers in those need an education.

Socioeconomic mobility was impossible for most:

1. “The evolution of the industrial economy depending on creating wage labor is faster than employers or the self-employed.

2. “Economic independence require technical qualifications, attitudes of mine, or financial resources which was simply not in the possession of most men and women. “

 jews throughout Europe stuck to their confined ghettos, built on centuries of alienation. A few wealthy traders emerge carefully but if you joined revolutions and those who did were seen as traders to the Orthodox and tightly controlled protective communities. Anti-Semitism is rampant throughout the peasantry across Europe, and any industrial on rest off and took the form of anti-Jewish sentiment. The RothChilds represented ability of Jewish elites to ascend into the nobility through accumulation of wealth.

Carl Marx and Benjamin Disraeli represented intellectual And political achievements by Judaism.  Jews supported liberal states and revolution, and benefit greatly from the inclusion and ascendancy as a propertied people. They lived outside of agricultural labor and achieved continued success as traders and then finance.

“the man who had not shown the ability to accumulate property was not a format, and could therefore hardly be a full citizen.”

 – under liberal governments of the 1830s+

A division immersed with two larger categories:

1. The civilized – The new middle class world

2. The barbarian – who included both the colonize people who were offered admission to the first group if they sacrifice their religion and or beliefs systems, and the bulk of labor and poor at home

Hypocrisy was unacknowledged in the principle of a quality and it’s lack of translation to discriminatory labor coats which punished workers like prison and employers merely but I might is  and if it allHypocrisy was unacknowledged in the principle of equality and its lack of translation to discriminatory labor codes which punished workers like prison and employers merely by Modest fines if at all.

By keeping workers on the verge of starvation, “poverty will be a guarantee of good behavior “– it was necessary to work and remain obedient to survive. Malthus’s law would starve off enough of them to keep a rational check on population, since it was perceived that refraining from excessive indulgence and procreation was impossible among the barbaric classes.

Liberal philosophy noted three pillars of human society: equality, property, and inheritance. A recognition of any quality started after 1848. Henry Baudrillart of France said “men had duties and rights, the virtue is not simply the equivalent of money, and that the lower order, the low, had a right to their modest lives in the station to which God had called them”

The Labouring Poor

“Every manufacturer lives in his factory like the colonial planners in the midst of their slaves, 1 against 100…” Saint Marc Girardin, 1831

“The introduction of a purely utilitarian individual system of social behavior, the theoretically justified jungle anarchy of Bush why society with his motto ‘every man for himself and the devil take the hindmost’, appeared to men brought up in traditional societies as a little better than wonton evil.”

Martin Luther‘s commentary on the seventh amendment thou shall not steal: “we shall love and fear of the Lord, so that we may not take away our neighbors property nor money, no required by false goods and trading, but on the contrary we should help him garden increase his livelihood and property”

Christian charity was clung to by the Papal  states as a means of safe guarding against the evil of equal rights – 

The belief that social distinction should be founded purely on communal utility.

The American Constitution protected American individualism, including the removal of such interferences as federal child labor legislation, not recognized until the 20th century. No one in the world was more firmly committed to artificial protection for their businesses. 

Industrialization and the impoverishment of the new proletariat into slums created mass alcoholism. “The quickest way out of Manchester “became a pestilence of hard liquor across Europe.

Urban development was a process of class segregation, which push the new labor import into the great more asses of misery outside the centers of government business and the newly specialized residential areas of the bourgeoisie. Where businesses, workers, and the comfortable classes and have it in the same buildings and beauty each other as neighbors, providing social safety nets and support – now the segregation produced survivalism and increasing in morality, violence, desperate epidemics and social unrest in the ghettos of the working class.

Religious revivals attempted to escape the mind, to accept or forget the poverty and humiliation, to call to higher powers to deliver from an otherwise inevitable fate of being poor labor. 

Mass apathy On the capacity of collections action through voting spread throughout the poem proletariat. Less than half of factory and railway workers, laborers, domestic workers voted.

The only alternative to escape or submission was rebellion. Nothing was more in evitable in the first half of the 19th century and the appearance of labor and socialist movement and mass social revolutionary unrest. The revolution of 1848 was a direct consequence.

For the rural poor, Bad harvest meant famine. Actual poverty was worse in the countryside – especially among landless wage laborers, world domestic workers, and Landport peasants for those who lived on infertile land. Even in Switzerland, a famine could render more deaths than births for the year

In Sheffield, “grinders disease “was unknown until the rival steam power into the trade of cutlery. “In 1840 to 50% of all razor grinders in their 30s, 79% in their 40s, and 100% over the age of 50 retched out there and wings with it. “

Any slump in the industry would result in destitution for large swaths of the proletariat. 2/3 of the textile workers in Bolton in 1842 would be thrown totally out of work. 20% Nottingham, 1/3 of Paisley. 

Chartism in Britain would collapse under political weakness. Sheer hunger would revive it.

Skilled weavers and framework knitters used to rely on price lists That established pricing of their labor as suppliers to furniture makers. Forced into sweatshops, the former piecework system was boils down to a daily wage, below subsistence.

New industrial factory wages could not sustain a person or family without parochial assistance. Much like how minimum wage in the United States must be supplemented by the welfare system of the government to provide subsistence levels of income and means.

“ If life was a thing that money could buy, The rich would live and the poor might die.“

After the 1820s, the concept of socialism emerged. The industrial world was no longer a division of poor and rich. Now our class consciousness emerged, the working class against the bourgeoisie (new middle class), a consciousness demanded by the impossible living conditions of a system that continued to make the poor poor and increase the wealth of the middle class.

A broader movement of the laboring poor emerged. Robert Owen’s cooperative doctrines we’re adopted by artisans mechanics and hand workers. In Germany, early communist were traveling journeyman craftsman – tailors, joiners, printers.

unions represented communities, built among the dense concentrations of workers mutual and friendly societies in the new industrial areas, especially Lancashire. Library‘s, savings banks, institutes, scientific clubs, drawing academies, missionary meetings, infant schools, magazines – and of course their political organization in chartism.

The bigger movement of solidarity had no leader ship or coordination. The “general union “of 1834 and 35 broke down rapidly. Hunger, wretchedness, hatred, and hope bonded the poor together – but they lacked the organization and maturity of the revolutionary Jacobinism of 1789 to 94. This is what undermined the 1848 general revolutions across continental Europe and England.

Religion

Bourgeois Society Needed a simple morality, something to justify a narrowminded focus on capital and production and the accumulation of wealth. Agnostic immorality was embraced but also balance by a majority ideology of Catholicism Protestantism and Judaism. 

Progressive thinkers in the late 18th century, Hobbs for example, we’re considered relics of an old and corrupt society.

The French revolution set the stage for secularism in revolutionary movements to come from the enlightenment of the 18 century. 

Thomas Paine spoke for the radical democratic aspirations of small Artisans and pauperized craftsman. With the “age of reason” and “rights of man” in the 1790s, he demonstrated in popular language that the Bible is not the word of God.

Robert ON was followed by the mechanics, the workmen of the machines, and the 1820s. The halls of science spread rationalist propaganda through the cities -18 century rationalism as a predominant force in early socialism and labor movements.

Establish churches did not have enough space or presence in the new proletariat slums and industrial towns. Only 34% of Sheffield, 31% of Liverpool in Manchester, 29% of Birmingham had a church place available. Abandoned, the Proletariat turned to secularism.

David Strauss wrote the life of Jesus and 1835 which eliminated the supernatural element from a biography. The Novum Testamentum denied the Gospels where I witness accounts doubted whether Jesus had invented or intended to found a new religion.

Islam and sectarian Protestantism both expanded However.

Liberia was formed as a state of liberated American slaves in 1820s, and took up some of the European missionary Christian out reach. The rest of Africa was virtually untouched by Christianity.

Islam continued a silent, piecemeal, and irreversible expansion without any organized missionary effort or forcible conversion. And expanded east into Indonesia and northwestern China, and west into Sudan towards synagogue and from the shores of the Indian Ocean in land . Muslim traders monopolize the commerce of inner Africa and spread Islam through trade. 

Where the slave trade had broken down communal relations, Islam made it possible to rebuild social structures. And African Muslims became resistant to slavery. Islam offered an anti-slavery abolitionist strong hold against the new trade for converted Africans.

Sudanese imported into Brazil revolted nine times between 1807 and the great rising of 1835, until they were mostly killed or deported back to Africa. Slave traders learn to avoid imports from Islamic Africa, which only recently opened up to the trade.

In Southeast Asia Islam offered a pre-nationalism against the Portuguese and the Dutch to prevent Deeper colonization and the slave trade.

The puritanical wow her bites had a resident a review in by 1814 they conquered most of the territories, moved in the Syria we’re halted bye the westernizing Mohammed I leave Egypt another Western arms. They’re teaching spread into Persia Afghanistan in India. A similar movement developed in Algeria and resistance to the French and Russians. A pan Islam is him sought the original purity of the profit, but also to absorb western ovations. In Persia and nationalist revolutionary in the Bab movement of Ali Mohammed arose and 1840s

Defeated Indian tribes found it together under religiose social prophetic movements and resistance to the whites. The largest recorded Confederation of the plains Indians under Tecumseh in the first decade of the century and handsome lakes religion of 1799 was designed to preserve the Iroquois way of life against disruption by a white American society. Even Thomas Jefferson gave handsome like his blessing as He had adopted Christian and quaker elements.

Protestantism was viewed as a direct compliment to capitalism – a democratic gala Terian assembly without social or religious hierarchy, that’s appealing also to the common man. Hostility to elaborate ritual and doctrine encouraged amateur prophecy and preaching. Revivals and revivalism or a direct consequence of the suppression of outlets for mass emotion under capitalism. Methodist, Wesleyans proliferated under this revivalism.

Other anti-slavery sex evolved into intellectual deism under 18 century rationalism: Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Unitarians, Quakers. The new method is type of sectarianism was antirevolutionary, though this did not Feed immunity of Britain revolution revolution during this period.

For the proletariat, religion was an opium which Lynn primitive expression for their discontents and aspirations. It was a safe, insulated protest against the entirety of society.

For the middle classes, religion was a powerful moral problem, justification of their social existence against the contempt of traditional society, and an engine of expansion. Legitimize their harshness towards the oppressed. United with trade to bring civilization to the heating and sales to business.

“The individual found it a more adequate expression of his tragic predicament than he provided by the rational.“

For monarchies and aristocracies and all other leads, and provided social stability. They learned from the French revolution that the church was the strongest prop of the throne. Common people would leave to defend the church and the associated ruler against foreigners and revolutionaries. Last or even led by their priest.

“The priest, the policeman, and the censor were now the three main props of reaction against revolution.”

A new wave of reactionary young men from the upper classes join the Anglican church which they viewed to be a true Catholic church. And within the organized religions of Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, and Judaism Some moved from romantic conservatism into a revolutionary idealization of the people, close to socialism. A new liberal Jewish main stream emerged, intent on assimilation and knowing it’s liberation to the ideals of the enlightenment and revolution.

The powerful revolutionary current of the 1830s and 1840s pulled some Catholic thinkers. For the church, new conversions are welcome as a heart inside of the churches power to conquer the lower classes by using leaders from the upper.

Secularism

Bourgeois liberals and revolutionary proletariat shared enlightenment ideals:

– Human history was an assent rather than a decline or an undulation around a level plateau

– Man scientific knowledge and technical control over nature increase daily

– Human society and the individual man could be perfected by the same application of reason and we’re destined to be so perfected by history

classical liberalism was focused on individualism, has professed in the American declaration of independence. In this individual pursuit, a person entered into certain relations with other individuals as useful arrangements to achieve his end, defined as a “contract“ which made of society and social or political groups. The aim of society was the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Hobbes argued strongly in favor of complete equality of all individuals in all respects except “science”

Interest in benevolence was simply something that made the individual happy. A necessary part of pursuing happiness for the individual. 

Utilitarianism never monopolize middle-class liberal ideology – it was the sharpest of radical axis by which to shop down traditional institutions which could not justify their beliefs under 

1.  Is it useful?

2. Is it rational?

3. Does it contribute to the greatest happiness of the greatest number?

John Lockwood add a simplified version of liberalism which protected private property has a natural right. The French revolutionaries added free enterprise. 

Middle class confidence in the Triumph of capitalism is much greater than the confidence in the political supremacy of the bourgeoisie over absolutism or the mob. Businessman Klein to vulgar variations that justified their pursuit – Adam Smith’s wealth of Nations in 1776 was the beginning, and David Ricardo’s principles of right political economy in 1817 was the peak.

A rapid increase in the “wealth of Nations“ i.e. the comfort and well-being, and therefore the happiness, of all men. This was predicated on a natural order based around the social division of labor. It could be scientifically proven now that the existence of a class of calculus only the means of production benefit at all including the class of laborers hiring themselves out – just as trade between countries could be proven to benefit both.

Political economy emerged as a largely British science, reducing the French economist to the lesser role of predecessors, and “non-classical economist to a scattering of snipers”

Ricardo acknowledged the introduction of machinery caused misery and suffering among the poor, but was merely reality that do you overall utility function and happiness level achieved was lesser than hoped. 

As capitalism experienced difficulty in expansion from 1810 to the 1840s, critical inquiry was made into the distribution against the production, which head chiefly concerned the generation of Adam Smith. 

Ricardian economics (acknowledged the decline of profit overtime) and Benthamite utilitarianism With the utilitarian anarchy of William Godwin spread across newly independent countries in Latin America. Brazil, Argentina, and Cuba all adopted schools of political economy.

Only Britain trusted political economy to a democratic republic. Other thinkers such as admin Burke, believed in tradition, continuity, and slow organic growth as a theoretical mainstay of conservatism. Practical liberals on the European continent preferred constitutional monarchy with property suffrage or any old-fashioned absolutism which guaranteed their interests.

John Stuart Mill would come to focus on safeguarding the rights of minorities against majorities, in contrast with his father James mills sturdy confidence in Bushwalla democracy and any quality design for middle-class political power.

Classical arguments of liberalism were turned against the Catholic societies that help to build. Utilitarian happiness started as a new idea in Europe (Saint-Just) but soon could not ignore it was not being achieved among the laboring poor. Ricardian economics and Ricardo himself drew the conclusion of his theory: since the catalyst appropriated profit, it’ll remain to do without Caples and those to abolish exploitation. Ricardian “labor Economists” arose in Britain from this conclusion. The vulgar simplicity of Adam Smith’s principle that the exchange of equivalence in the market somehow assured social justice was incomprehensible and the moral. The fluctuations and instability of a capitalist economy, the cycles and crises, we’re also becoming obvious – the internal contradictions which led to a strong socialist Belief in transition.

The new socialist marked a return to the belief that man is naturally a communal being. Society was not some necessary and regrettable thing to achieve individual happiness but a setting to live and help one another. The bulk of common people held this view even when they cannot express it. Primitive communism throughout history spoke to future communism as a return and evolution at the same time. Hegelians saw “Alienation” – the separation from society in the obvious dehumanization of bourgeois society. Society as man’s home rather than the mirror locus of the unattached individuals activities.

The optimistic days of political economy were over by 1848.

 

Utopian Socialists Believe the truth simply have to be shown through proclamations, communal experiments, and state sponsored reinventions/experiments.

Fourier, a utopian socialist, noted “genius must read discover the path of that permit of happiness and adapt to the conditions of modern industry.” 

Robert Owen’s New Harmony was in Indiana and the USA contain 34 imported and homegrown for Fourieristic phalanxes and numerous colonies inspired by the Christian communist Cabet and others. The Saints Simonians look for an elightened despot who might carry out their proposals and hoped Mohammad Ali of Egypt would be this.

Marks transfer this rationality or desirability of socialism into a historical inevitability, the formidable and intellectual weapon Marxism. If it had been an internal ideal, it could’ve been realized during the French revolution or even sooner. Instead it was the child of capitalism and depended on it to create the conditions.  And ideology of progress instead of resistance – as “anarchy represented. disorganized non intellectual incoherence.

Capitalism did not create the market system, and represented a dehumanization of it. 

“the social ambitions of a comfortable are always more modest than those of the poor“

Romantic movements such as Tory democracy or Feudal socialism agreed with the new labor socialist. But they stressed the element of order in it – to safeguard those on the upper steps of the social hierarchy against those on the lower.

Where capitalism had reduced man to commodities, they return to the social hierarchies of feudalism was some ordered an unequal return to communal living – tighten networks of social and personal relationships guided by the clear map of custom, institution, and obligation.

20th and 21st Century Western and America:  *Law and order as a veiled excuse to protect economic classes and hierarchy systems under the guise of public safety, criminal justice, and the rule of law.

Dialectics emerged, Between the new industrial bourgeois and proletarian on one side and the aristocratic Mercantile classes and feudal mass on the other – notably led early by Jean Jacques Rousseau.

These “little men“ believed in democracy, nationalism, and a state of small independence with equal distribution of property and some welfare activities. 

German liberalism: middle class demands carried out by an light state, And a well structured and organized effort.

– Blended philosophy, science, and the arts in a Dialectic with romantic traditions. Goethe was a poet but also a scientist and philosopher.

– Kant and Hegel were influenced by Adam Smith, and much like the evolution of capitalism and socialism, their intellectual products were the young Hegelians and eventually Marxism.

Hegel used abstraction to explain and come to terms with bourgeois society. His analysis of labor as the fundamental factor in humanity: “man makes tools because he is a reasonable been, and this is the first expression of his Will“ 

Hegel’s dialectic : progress in whatever field through the never ending resolution of contradictions. The basic unit of cons philosophies individual were the individual conscience. He got a starting point is the collective which he saw disintegrating intensive rituals under the impact of historical development. 

There was no absolute truth. Only the development of the historic process itself which took place through the dialectic. Even Huegel sought an “End to history” with the cognition of the Absolute Idea

– What Karl Marx saw as Marxism?

The inability of German thinkers to completely participate in bourgeois liberal Vance gave them Objectivity to see the limits and contradictions. And how it must in turn be superseded.

The Dual Revolution: 

the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution

“Between the 1789 in the 1848 revolutions, princes are only to often suspicious of the non-operatic arts, and the bourgeoisie engaged in accumulation rather than spending. Geniuses were there for a general not only misunderstood but also poor. And most of them were revolutionary.”

The Romantics gave art and translation to the social analysis of early socialists-  detailed the alienation and the a social nature of bourgeois society under capitalism.

Both romantic medievalism and sources of “irrational wisdom “in the Orient – Kublai Khan and the Brahmans – influence them

Romantic art and expression began to take on revolutionary tones, depicting the glory of uprising and protest, and achieve success in political influence from 1830 to 1848. Barricades and widespread protest would begin to be shown after 1848 in painting, literature, poetry, music, and other arts.

 Heine the poet was a close friend of Marx.

“Science and technology were the muses of the bourgeoisie.”

Proletariat culture cling to the old folk songs and stories a royal life, but the cities made it impossible to retain a village we have life. After 1848 the musical and dance hall with emerge from the tavern, but before then the fair provided a an extension of its entertainment and side shows, theaters, pick pockets, street entertainers.

In general “the new industrial city remained a gaunt place, whose few amenities  – open spaces, holidays – were gradually diminished by the creeping blade of building, the fumes which poisoned all natural life, and the compulsions of unceasing labor.”

Science 

Goethe:  “Questions of science are very frequently career questions. A single discovery may make a man famous and lay the foundation of his fortunes as a citizen

Every newly observe phenomenon is a discovery, every discovery is property. Touch a man’s property and his passions are immediately aroused.“

Thoughts and new science as property under capitalism. When individual thinking becomes property, the disciplines of collaboration under a communal society – where the swift advancement of knowledge, science, technology -become impossible, waiting on single minds to generate complete Philosophies and methods on their own in moments of Eureka and complete ownership.

The French revolution first brought scientist into government. The Polytechnique was a Jacobin center of new scientific, mathematics, physics – part of a revolution and general form of secondary and hire education later firmed by Napoleon. The model was replicated in Prague, Vienna, Stockholm, St. Petersburg, Copenhagen, Zürich, Massachusetts, Oliver Germany – but not in England.

Engineers and geometry us, mathematicians and physicist ran the war production and war efforts. 

In Britain, science was propelled by industry, but scientist we’re not seen as directly useful to the railways and other rational applications of their empiricism. The London mechanics institution, one University as an alternative to Oxford in Cambridge, the British Association for the advancement of science in 1831 – all mobilize the support of industrialists in the provinces.

The “research University” was established throughout Europe and the US, along with the first academic journals.

Electricity and electromagnetism came between 1786 with Calvani and 1831 with faraday. Then the laws of thermodynamics. chemistry, a preeminently French science, I was led by the work of Lavoisier and directly influence the new dying and bleaching processes of the textile industry.

Organic chemistry was discovered but limited bye technology. Shleiden and Schwan discovered cells in 1838.

Profound changes and challenges to mathematics occurred in variables, theory of groups, factors, and the overthrow of Euclidean geometry for Riemannian assumptions.

The social sciences

17th and 18th century rationalist thought continued do you establish the equivalent of physical wise for human populations. The systematic deductive theory of political economy, far advance by 1789. Then the discovery of historical evolution – history as a process of logical evolution not just a chronological succession of events.

“The daring innovation of the classical rationalist I’ve been to demonstrate that something like logically compulsory laws were clickable to human consciousness and free decision. The laws of political economy were of the sort.“

Laws of political economy were seen by capital us as beyond liking and disliking – which fueled a wild antirationalism in the romantic opponents. Economists grossly exaggerated the universality of their postulates. Statisticians and Anthropometrists and “social investigators“ flourished. History becomes a formal academic subject.

Comte, The former private secretary to Saint Simon, created sociology. Karl Marx would emerge as it’s most formidable contemporary terrorist, regarding it as a tool for changing the world.

Philology – A new science began to justify the conquest of non-European societies in Germany.  Analyzing Sanskrit by the British, hieroglyphics by Napoleon, cuneiform Writing in India for British colonial officers. The application of history for discovery, description, and classification. “The first science with regarded evolution at it’s very core“. General linguistic laws that govern all of human communication, referencing the “the whole earth was of one language and one speech and “in the Bible.

Teutonic languages – that of the end of European spectrum Dash were analyzed to produce general language stick laws analogous to scientific ones. Grimace law showed that all Teutonic languages underwent certain consonant shifts In the evolution of history and a section of Dialects underwent another similar shift centuries later.

Sciences were eliminated by the down-to-earth operations of the industrial revolution. William Smith, a English drainage engineer, discovered historic succession of strata did it by characteristic fossils. The study of the earth came through money, the study of life through medicine, the crucial discovery of shared chemical elements in living things and non-living or in organic nature through industrial chemistry. 

The decade of the French revolution brought dramatic advances in evolutionary thought. James Hutton of Edinburgh with the theory of the earth in 1795. Erasmus Darwin put forward evolutionary theory is if the earth end of plant and animal species in 1794. Laplace brought an evolutionary theory of the solar system in 1796. In 1809, the mark of France per pound of the first systematic major modern theory of evolution based on the inheritance of acquired characteristics.

Geological evolution was accepted, And geology continued as a gentlemanly science in Oxford in Cambridge. Biological evolution and the evolution of man was strongly resisted by conservatives.

Racism From the study of history

Nationalism, radicalism, the new field of history, and feel observation – along with the strange contemporary hobbies of phrenology and anthropometry – began to create racial classifications. 

Ethnology as “the history of the progress of peoples towards civilization”

Racialists from the American south joined the pre-Darwinian scientists Prichard and Lawrence with Cuvier to develop permanent national and racial characteristics in society.

– Example: France. The study of the Norman conquest and of the calls. The French people were descended from the Gauls, the aristocrats from the Teutons who conquer them, an argument use for conservative purposes by upper class racialists like the Count of Gobineau. 

– The belief that specific racial stock survived serve the aims of the age for men to discover the romantic and mysterious individuality of their nations to:

– 1. Claim messianic missions for them if revolutionary

– 2. Describe wealth and power to “innate superiority“ though no tendency to describe poverty and oppression to it in a inferiority.

– The foundations of the extreme abuses and racial theories of the later 19th century we’re established before 1848

Violent convulsions of society During and after the French revolution, along with this with changes of the industrial revolution – the dual Revolution –may have motivated much of the scientific radicalism and bold, progressive new thought.

Natural Philosophy became popular in Germany as a way to express, the mysterious organic union of all things with each other… Which resisted precise quantitative measurement or Cartesian clarity.“  It was Flatley and revolt against mechanical materialism, against Newton, sometimes against reason itself. Yep this romanticism inspired and identified the problems that physical science would go on to conquer. The Cell theory in biology, a good deal of morphology, embryology, philology, and much of historical an evolutionary elements in all science were primarily of romantic inspiration

Select conclusions

By 1851, The urban population of Britain exceeded the rule population for the first time.

Capitalists defend the Eutopian prospects of free enterprise, and blamed the remaining elements of aristocracy and feudalism for the impoverishment of the laboring poor. The new socialist of this time how old it was due to the very operations of the system. Both agreed that these were growing pains”

Both agreed “human life Faced a prospect of material improvement to equal to advance and man’s control over the forces of nature.” -The notable advances of science and industry. And technology.

The international slave trade has been officially abolished in 1815 and actual slavery abolished in the British colonies in 1834, and then the liberated Spanish and French ones in and after the French revolution. In the West Indies.

in Brazil and the southern USA numerically slavery continue to expand. Official prohibition made the slave trade more lucrative. Price of a field hand and the American south was $300 and 1795 but between 1200 and $1800 in 1860. The number of slaves in the US rows from 700,017 90 to 2.500,000 in 1840 and 3.2 million in 1850. Many more new slaves were bred for sale from within slaveowning areas in the border states in the US for sale to the rapidly expanding Cottonville instead of import from Africa.

Serfdom abolished throughout much of Europe but remain steady in Russia between 10 and 11,000,000 miles after 1811, declining in relative terms. Serf agriculture was in decline and the rebelliousness of the peasantry increased in Austria, the 1846 surf rising was a notable prelude to general emancipation by the 1848 revolution. From the 1840s. 474 outbreaks of peasant rebellion led to emancipation in 1861 in Russia.

 Except for France, the position of the landed aristocrat change much less than conventional liberal history proposes. Cotton plantations created a provincial caricature of aristocratic society inspired by Walter Scott – chivalry, romance, and the division of rednecked Puritan farmers eating amazing fat pork while Negro slaves Served as American style serfs. But even this new aristocratic system was dependent on the despised bourgeoisie system of stocks and shares and industrial production of agriculture.

The middle class grew but not at any rate close to the Proletariat. In Britain, the number of middle-class earning over 5000 pounds a year was about 4000, which includes the aristocracy. Petty bourgeois society – 150 pounds a year of income – grew to about 340,000 by 1850. The proletariat population can now be measured in the millions. In other parts of Europe it was in the hundreds of thousands as a new working class. The rest were rural poor and feudal style farmers.

In 1800, Constitutional monarchy ruled several European kingdoms, including France. Everywhere else, save the USA, absolute monarchy prevailed. 

With the Louisiana purchase of 1803, an extraordinarily rapid rate of economic expansion occurred in USA Which lacked any strong Neighbors or rival powers which could prevent it’s expansion across the continent.

Brazil separated peacefully from Portugal and escape the fragmentation of revolutionary war which took it’s toll on the rest of Spanish America during independence movements. Brazils wealth of resources remain virtually unexploded though. Rain forest lands and other natural resources are currently being exploited and exported in the late 20th and 21st-century

Revolution of 1830 introduced moderate liberal middle class constitutions across the chief states of Western Europe – anti-democratic but equally anti-aristocratic.

Radical democracy was imposed in the US by Andrew Jackson from 1829 1837. In 1847, Civil War between radicals and Catholics in Switzerland brought democracy there.

“The Opium War of 1839 to 1842 demonstrated the only surviving non-European power, the Chinese empire, was helpless in the face of western military and economic aggression. Nothing could stand in the way of a few western gunboats or regiments bringing with them trade and Bibles. “

British supremacy hardly needed political control to operate. There were no other colonial powers left, unless Grace by the British, and consequently no rivals. The French empire was reduced to a few scattered islands and trading post, with some revival across the Mediterranean in Algeria. The Dutch restored themselves in Indonesia under the watch of the new British Entrepôt of Singapore. The Spanish retained Cuba, the Philippines, and a few vague claims in Africa. The Portuguese colonies were forgotten. 

British trade dominated argentine, Brazil, and the southern US as much as colonies in India or the Spanish call me if you are. British investments had powerful steaks in the northern US and whatever economic development took place. 

“Never in the entire history of the world has a single power exercise the world of Germany like that of the British in the middle of the 19th century.“

Tocqueville and Haxthausen predicted even at this time that the sizes and potential resources at the US and Russia would eventually make them into the twin Giants of the world. And within Europe, Germany would also compete on equal terms. Only friends said decisively dropped out of the competition for international hegemony.

It was inevitable that serfdom and slavery would have to go. It was also inevitable that Britain could and would not forever remain the only industrialized country. That landed in Mr. Kratz an absolute monarchy‘s would retreat in all countries in which a strong push was he was developing. The injection of political consciousness and permanent political activity among the masses became standard as the great legacy of the French revolution. And so these masses were allowed to play a formal part in politics.

The 1840s  predictions of the final crisis of capitalism did not play out, Instead it transformed into the greatest expansion an improvement of capitalism in the rest of the 19 century.

At the beginning of the 19th century, There was still doubt among the Saint Simonians – Who would become the Titans of industry – Whether socialism and capitalism would be the ultimate triumph of industrial society.

In the US, Horace Greeley have become immortal as the profits of individualist expansion – “go West young man“ – started as a proponent of you told me and socialism. The “American dream “focused on individualism and would come to contradict the original vision of communal societies.

In Britain in Belgium, conflicts between Aquarians and industrialists we’re settled in the transformations of 1838 1832 – which decided in favor of the industrial us.

Appeasement‘s like the electoral reform of 1848 Belgium remove the discontents of the lower middle class, and ignore the proletariat. Since the Liberals defeated the Catholics in 1847 elections, this concession prevented in 1848 revolution, though Belgium suffered worse than any other part of Western Europe except Ireland.

In parts of Europe where monarchies maintained property and income requirements for electoral participation, it was not enough to prevent revolution. “History was against the aristocracy.“ And many denied this, Grant minimal concessions until forced to greater movements in the 1848 revolutions. The election of a liberal pope brought the papacy in the Catholic Church “into the 19th century“

A great depression swept across the European continent from the middle of the 1840s. Paris field – especially the potato crap. Entire populations – Ireland and to a lesser extent Silicia and Flanders – starved. Food prices rose. Industrial depression multiplied unemployment Dash masses of urban Labouring pourat were deprived of their modest income at the very moment one cost of living rocketed. Provincial factory workers – especially the Irish and Flemish – suffer the most and were the most politically immature. In the most industrial country, Britain, discontent have been taken away by the railway building boom of the middle 1840s. 1846 1848 were bad years, but not as bad as 1841 to 42. Except for England, the catastrophe of 1846 to 1848 was universal in the mood for the masses, living close to subsistence, was tense an impassioned. Revolution built, ready to be broadcast across Europe by the new industrial communication invention of the electric telegraph. In 1848 the explosion burst.